Small-signal ac measurement techniques have proven useful in determining properties of electrochemical cells and batteries such as cranking power, percent capacity, and state-of-health. These techniques have generally utilized single-frequency measurements of a single quantity, such as conductance (e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,585,728 and 5,140,269 to Champlin), resistance (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 3,676,770 to Sharaf et al, U.S. Pat. No. 3,753,094 to Furuishi, U.S. Pat. No. 5,047,722 to Wurst et al), or "impedance" (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,697,134 to Burkum et al, U.S. Pat. No. 5,773,978 to Becker). However, considerably more information of an electrical chemical, and physical nature is contained in the continuous spectrum of complex immittance, i.e., either impedance or admittance, displayed over a range of frequencies. (See, e.g., David Robinson, "Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy in Battery Development and Testing", BATTERIES INTERNATIONAL, 31, pp. 59-63, April, 1997). A big challenge for field testing batteries is to acquire such information from a relatively small number of measurements obtained at a few selected "spot" frequencies.
Muramatsu discloses one approach to this challenge in U.S. Pat. No. 4,678,998. He measures impedance magnitude at two frequencies. At each frequency he compares the measured magnitude with that of a predetermined experimental relationship between impedance magnitude, remaining capacity, and remaining service life. He reports that such measurements can separately determine the battery's remaining capacity and its remaining service life. Randin discloses a second approach in U.S. Pat. No. 4,743,855. He reportedly determines a battery's state-of-discharge from the argument (i-e., phase angle) of the difference between complex impedances measured at two frequencies. Bounaga discloses still another approach in U.S. Pat. No. 5,650,937. He reportedly determines state-of-charge from measurements of only the imaginary part of complex impedance obtained at a single frequency. All three of these approaches have fairly limited objectives, however. Much more information is actually contained in the complete spectrum of complex immittance than is acquired by Muramatsu, Randin, or Bounaga.
Equivalent circuit modeling may assist one in relating complex immittance spectra to electrical, chemical, or physical properties of a battery. A complex nonlinear least-squares curve-fitting procedure has been used by electrochemists to relate impedance spectra to nonlinear electrochemical models. (See, e.g., J. Ross Macdonald and Donald R. Franceschetti, "Precision of Impedance Spectroscopy Estimates of Bulk, Reaction Rate, and Diffusion Parameters", Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, 307, pp. 1-11, 1991; see also Bernard A. Boukamp, "A Package for Impedance/Admittance Data Analysis", Solid State Ionics, 18, pp.136-140, 1986). This complex procedure, however, requires measuring the complete spectral distribution of cell/battery impedance and then making initial estimates of the model's parameters to ensure ultimate convergence.
An equivalent circuit model is an interconnection of electrical elements introduced to represent terminal characteristics of the battery. In a linear small-signal model, these elements comprise discrete resistances capacitances and inductances. Such models have been described by a number of workers including Hampson, et al (N. A. Hampson, et al, "The Impedance of Electrical Storage Cells", Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 10, pp.3-11, 1980), Willihnganz and Rohner (E. Willihnganz and Peter Rohner, "Battery Impedance", Electrical Engineering, 78, No. 9, pp. 922-925, September, 1959), and DeBardelaben (S. DeBardelaben, "Determining the End of Battery Life", INTELLEC 86, IEEE Publication CH2328-3/86/0000-0365, pp. 365-386, 1986; and S. DeBardelaben, "A Look at the Impedance of a Cell", INTELLEC 88, IEEE Publication CH2653-4/88/000-0394, pp. 394-397, 1988). However, none of these workers has disclosed means for determining component values of an equivalent circuit model from a small number of measurements obtained at a few selected "spot" frequencies. That is an important contribution of the invention disclosed herein